The consequences of overfishing

Fish are one of the oldest and most biodiverse groups of vertebrates inhabiting our planet. They populate almost all the earth’s waters, but their numbers are dwindling rapidly. It is particularly hard for us to imagine the world that fish inhabit. We rarely think of them as individuals – in most cases, we speak of them as collective beings, described in kilograms and tonnes.

Each year, around 96 million tonnes of these marine creatures are taken from the sea and subsequently die in pain and distress.^[1]FAO (2020): The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. Rome. 2.3 trillions of these sentient creatures perish each year – and this does not include the numbers killed by the rampant practice of illegal fishing.^[2]A. Mood and P. Brooke (2019): Numbers of fish caught from the wild each year. Available at http://fishcount.org.uk/fish-count-estimates-2/numbers-of-fish-caught-from-the-wild-each-year [09.12.2020]

The global demand for fish is rising. Figures released by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) indicate that fish consumption per capita was about 20 kg in 2017.^[3]FAO (2020): The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. Rome. ^[4]FAO (2016): The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2016: Contributing to food security and nutrition for all. Rome. Among the main reasons for this steady increase in fish consumption are technological developments, but also rising incomes and an increasing demand for fish products, especially in the younger population.^[5]FAO (2020): The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. Rome. ^[6]Supartini, A., T. Oishi & N. Yagi (2018): Changes in Fish Consumption Desire and Its Factors: A Comparison between the United Kingdom and Singapore. Foods 7(7), 97. doi:10.3390/foods7070097

Fish stocks are rapidly dwindling due to overfishing

Fish stocks are still declining around the world. Today, over 90% of fish stocks are considered either overfished or exploited close to the point of unsustainability.^[7]FAO (2020): The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. Rome.

Climate change and warming oceans are now also affecting fish stocks and the growth of many species might be negatively affected.^[8] Free, C. M., J. T. Thorson, M. L. Pinsky, et al. (2019): Impacts of historical warming on marine fisheries production. Science 363(6430), 979–983. doi:10.1126/science.aau1758 A recent study showed that industrial fishing is occurring in more than 55% of ocean area – four times the area used by agriculture.^[9]Kroodsma, D. A., J. Mayorga, T. Hochberg, et al. (2018): Tracking the global footprint of fisheries. Science 359(6378), 904–908. doi:10.1126/science.aao5646

Bycatch causes unnecessary suffering and death

Environmentally hazardous fishing methods and inadequate fishery laws wreak havoc on the oceans and their inhabitants. Each year, several million marine animals end up in fishing nets as bycatch.  The term ‘bycatch’ describes sea dwellers that are not the targeted animal – including 300,000 whales and dolphins^[10]WWF (2004): Cetacean bycatch and the IWC. Available at: http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/bycatchjuly12lowres2004.pdf [09.03.2018] but also seabirds and other marine mammals that get caught in fishing nets. Most of them do not survive the ordeal –  they either perish in the nets or die a slow death later on due to injury or stress.^[11]WWF (2004): Cetacean bycatch and the IWC. Available at: http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/bycatchjuly12lowres2004.pdf [09.03.2018] It is estimated that around 40% of the captured animals are bycatch^[12]R. W. D. Davies, S. J. Cripps, A. Nickson, and G. Porter (20089): Defining and Estimating Global Marine Fisheries Bycatch. Marine Policy 33, no. 4, S. 661–72. – many are discarded while some are also used as feed in aquaculture.^[13]Wijkström, U.N. (2009): The use of wild fish as aquaculture feed and its effects on income and food for the poor and the undernourished. In M.R. Hasan and M. Halwart (eds). Fish as feed inputs for … Continue reading

Increasing imbalance in the marine ecosystem

Overfishing wreaks havoc on marine ecosystems. As well as the populations of species intended for human consumption, the stocks of animals caught as bycatch are also declining. Rampant fishing also causes immense damage to the seabird, jellyfish, and plankton populations.^[14]World Ocean Review (2013): The Future of Fish: The Fisheries of the future. Available at: http://worldoceanreview.com/wp-content/downloads/wor2/WOR2_english.pdf [09.03.2018] ^[15]Wagner, E. L. & P. D. Boersma (2011): Effects of Fisheries on Seabird Community Ecology. Reviews in Fisheries Science 19(3), 157–167. doi:10.1080/10641262.2011.562568 ^[16] Furness, W.R. (2003): Impacts of fisheries on seabird communities. Scientia Marina 67 (Suppl. 2): 33-45 Beyond the sheer volume of fish caught, the fishing methods used are especially damaging to ecosystems as a whole. Bottom-trawl nets, for instance, which are used to catch plaice, sole, and crustaceans, destroy the seabed and the organisms living there, including coral.

Fish farming in aquacultures

In recent years, there has been an alarming rise in the number of aquafarms around the world. As well as carp, trout, and catfish, fish farms also breed other fish such as salmon and bream and other marine dwellers, including shrimps, crabs, and even mussels. In 2018, aquafarms produced over 80 million tonnes of aquatic animals.^[17]FAO (2020): The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. Rome. Systems for aquafarming range from inland ponds to extensive cage setups in the ocean. As a result of the high density common in fish farming, the animals experience elevated levels of stress and increased susceptibility to injury and disease.^[18]P. Stevenson (2007): Closed Waters: The Welfare of Farmed Atlantic Salmon, Rainbow Trout, Atlantic Cod & Atlantic Halibut. Compassion in World Farming  and World Society for the Protection of … Continue reading ^[19]Ashley, P. J. (2007): Fish welfare: Current issues in aquaculture. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 104(3–4), 199–235. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2006.09.001

Fish eats fish

Aquafarms frequently breed predators such as salmon or trout, which require smaller fish as fodder, thus exacerbating the problem of overfishing.^[20]FAO (2016): The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2016: Contributing to food security and nutrition for all. Rome. ^[21]Tacon A. G. J. und M. Metian (2008): Global overview on the use of fish meal and fish oil in industrially compounded aquafeeds: Trends and future prospects. Aquaculture 285, 1-4, S. 146 – 158 Fishmeal and fish oil production has become a huge industry supplying aquafarms and the livestock industry with fish meal and fish oil to feed billions of animals. About 20-30% of wild caught fish are used as animal feed, with a large part of this potentially suitable for direct human consumption.^[22]Reuters (2008): One-third of world fish catch used for animal feed. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-fish-food-idUSTRE49S0XH20081029 [19.12.2020] ^[23]Cashion, T., F. Le Manach, D. Zeller, et al. (2017): Most fish destined for fishmeal production are food-grade fish. Fish and Fisheries 18(5), 837–844. doi:10.1111/faf.12209 It is estimated that producing one kilogram of farmed fish requires up to 2 kilogram feed.^[24]Tacon, A. G. J. & M. Metian (2015): Feed Matters: Satisfying the Feed Demand of Aquaculture. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture 23(1), 1–10. doi:10.1080/23308249.2014.987209 ^[25]Fry, J. P., N. A. Mailloux, D. C. Love, et al. (2018): Feed conversion efficiency in aquaculture: do we measure it correctly? Environmental Research Letters 13(2), 024017. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aaa273 Some argue that the amount of fish used to produce 1 kilogram of salmon is now below 1kg. However, feed for fish not only contains fish meal but also large quantities of plant-proteins (soya, for example) and might also contain ingredients from livestock farming such as meat- and bone meal, and blood meal.

Impact of fish farming on the environment

Additionally, aquaculture damages the environment in numerous ways. Feces and feed residues burden the environment and can lead to over-fertilization of waters and a decline in biodiversity. The use of antibiotics and industrial chemicals further pollutes the waters and can, in a worst-case scenario, encourage the emergence of drug-resistant bacterial strains that may present a risk to humans as well.^[26]Allsopp, M., P. Johnston & D. Santillo (2008): Challenging the Aquaculture Industry on Sustainability – Greenpeace Research Laboratories Technical Note 01/2008: Available at: … Continue reading ^[27]Watts, J. E. M., H. J. Schreier, L. Lanska, et al. (2017): The Rising Tide of Antimicrobial Resistance in Aquaculture: Sources, Sinks and Solutions. Marine Drugs 15(6), doi:10.3390/md15060158

Fishing is a form of animal cruelty

Although many people now reject the practice of hunting wild game, fishing is still widely perceived as a relaxing hobby – perhaps because most people do not realize that fish are sentient beings who can experience pain. Hobby fishing causes substantial suffering to fish: the hook produces deep wounds in the oral cavity, while the fish slowly suffocates after being taken out of the water. ‘Catch-and-release’ fishing is a similarly traumatic experience, even though the fish is thrown back into the water. After being released, the animals suffer significant stress and injury, returning to the water with substantially depleted reserves of strength and a reduced chance of survival.

Fish maintain different social systems

As with the vast spectrum of land animals, fish also have strongly varying social systems.^[28]C. L. Peichel (2004): Social Behavior: How Do Fish Find Their Shoal Mate? Current Biology 14, no. 13, S503–504 ^[29]R. E. Engeszer, M.J. Ryan and D.M. Parichy (2004): Learned Social Preference in Zebrafish. Current Biology 14, no. 10, S. 881–884. For example, trout are regarded as loners, while other fish species live as couples or form loose groups or large shoals (as is the case with tuna). Fish possess long-term memory and are therefore able to establish complex social relationships. Additionally, they are equipped with spatial memory, allowing them to create mental maps that they use to navigate.^[30]C. Brown (2015). Fish Intelligence, Sentience and Ethics. Animal Cognition 18, no. 1, S. 1–17. In a recent study, a species of cleaner fish was shown to be able to remember a negative experience and showed hiding behavior near the place they were caught.^[31]Triki, Z. & R. Bshary (2020): Long‐term memory retention in a wild fish species Labroides dimidiatus eleven months after an aversive event. Ethology 126(3), 372–376. doi:10.1111/eth.12978

Fish have feelings and can experience pain

The assertion that ‘fish do not feel pain’ is frequently used to stifle any discussion of whether fish are able to suffer. But the inability to scream simply means that the pain felt by fish remains invisible and unheard. It follows, therefore, that we do not generally experience the same pangs of conscience that we feel in relation to pigs, cattle, or chicken. Nevertheless, researchers increasingly confirm that fish feel pain. Fish, like mammals, have sensory systems as well as cerebral structures and functions that are responsible for the perception of pain, fear, and stress.^[32]L. U. Sneddon, V. A. Braithwaite, and M. J. Gentle (2003): Do Fishes Have Nociceptors? Evidence for the Evolution of a Vertebrate Sensory System. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological … Continue reading ^[33]Heath, A. G. & G. M. Hughes (1973): Cardiovascular and Respiratory Changes During Heat Stress in Rainbow Trout (Salmo Gairdneri). Journal of Experimental Biology 59, no. 2 (October 1, 1973): … Continue reading ^[34]Arends, R. J., J. M. Mancera, J. L. Muñoz et al. (1999): The Stress Response of the Gilthead Sea Bream (Sparus Aurata L.) to Air Exposure and Confinement. The Journal of Endocrinology 163, no. 1 … Continue reading ^[35]Sneddon, L. U. (2019): Evolution of nociception and pain: evidence from fish models. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 374(1785), 20190290. … Continue reading This is substantiated by behavioral patterns such as defensive reactions to pain stimuli.^[36]H. Segner (2012): Fish: Nociception and Pain: a Biological Perspective. Contributions to Ethics and Biotechnology 9. Bern: Federal Office for Buildings and Logistics. ^[37]Sneddon, L. U. (2019): Evolution of nociception and pain: evidence from fish models. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 374(1785), 20190290. … Continue reading

Fish contain harmful mercury, dioxin, and lead

Fish absorb and accumulate the contaminants contained in seawater. There is a pertinent rule of thumb: the higher up the fish is in the food chain, the greater the toxin concentration in its body. This is troubling news for those who are accustomed to eating popular species such as salmon or tuna^[38]Gerstenberger, Shawn L., Adam Martinson, and Joanna L. Kramer. “An Evaluation of Mercury Concentrations in Three Brands of Canned Tuna.” Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 29, no. 2 (February … Continue reading – large predators that feed on smaller marine creatures and, in doing so, absorb toxins that accumulate in their bodies and become increasingly concentrated over time (this is known as bioaccumulation).^[39]Fair, P. A., N. D. White, B. Wolf, et al. (2018): Persistent organic pollutants in fish from Charleston Harbor and tributaries, South Carolina, United States: A risk assessment. Environmental … Continue reading People with a liking for fish will therefore consume mercury, PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), dioxins, lead, and arsenic, all of which can lead to a variety of conditions, ranging from kidney damage to cognitive decline, some forms of cancer, and even death.^[40]Corsolini, S., N. Ademollo, T. Romeo, et al. (2005): Persistent organic pollutants in edible fish: a human and environmental health problem. Microchemical Journal 79(1–2), 115–123. … Continue reading ^[41]Panseri, S., L. Chiesa, G. Ghisleni, et al. (2019): Persistent organic pollutants in fish: biomonitoring and cocktail effect with implications for food safety. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part … Continue reading Fish bred on aquafarms do not present a healthier alternative. After all, they are treated with antibiotics and chemicals to fight parasites and skin and gill infections – all consequences of the unnatural farming conditions.

A fundamental change in our collective mindset is needed

Not only are fish able to feel pain, but they also possess complex cognitive skills and social structures. Additionally, fishing and fish farming have negative impacts on the environment and our health, all of which make fish an unsustainable source of food. A fundamental change in mindset is needed in view of the exorbitant fishing quotas and the burden placed on the environment, nature, and fish populations. The availability of plant-based products similar to fish is on the rise. From plant-based fish burgers to caviar, calamari, prawns and shrimp, there is an alternative for every occasion. In this article, ProVeg presents the most popular options and explains how to use them in the kitchen.

ProVeg supports the availability of plant-based fish alternatives

ProVeg does not only point out healthy, cruelty-free alternatives, but also makes them more readily available. ProVeg supports and facilitates a range of vegan events throughout the year, from annual happenings such as VeggieWorld and VegMed to important one-off events such as CEVA trainings and legal and political symposiums. Furthermore, the ProVeg Incubator advises and supports innovative companies that want to enrich the veggie market with their products. This ranges from mentoring early-stage start-ups to consulting for major international supermarket brands and administering the V-Label, which guarantees that a product is either vegan or vegetarian. Find out more about what we are doing to help the world transition to a more plant-based society and economy that are sustainable for humans, animals, and our planet.